With the rapid advancement of technology, smart wearable devices are becoming increasingly ubiquitous, integral to our daily lives, sports activities, health monitoring, and even personal safety. However, achieving truly “body‑integrated” intelligence hinges on solving the challenge of power supply: conventional batteries are bulky and rigid, making them difficult to incorporate into soft textile materials, while their lifespan, charge‑discharge performance, and wash durability all pose significant hurdles.

Therefore, developing lightweight, flexible, washable energy storage devices with superior performance has become a key breakthrough for advancing the smart‑wearable industry. Supercapacitors, with their high power density, long cycle life, and rapid charge–discharge capabilities, are among the most promising options. Integrating supercapacitors directly into textiles has thus emerged as the industry’s “ultimate goal.”

Today, we’re introducing an exciting technological breakthrough: using aerosol jet printing (AJP) to directly “print” high‑performance MXene materials onto fabrics, creating flexible, washable, and exceptionally performing microsupercapacitors that are set to revolutionize wearable electronics.

Working principle

1. What are MXene materials?

MXene is a class of two-dimensional materials composed of layered transition-metal carbides or nitrides, exhibiting exceptionally high electrical conductivity, abundant surface chemical reactivity, and outstanding mechanical properties. These characteristics make MXene an ideal electrode material for supercapacitors.

2. Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP) technology

Aerosol jet printing (AJP) is, in essence, a high‑precision material deposition technique. Unlike conventional printing, AJP enables micron‑scale, high‑resolution patterning, offers flexible operation, and accommodates materials across a wide range of viscosities, making it particularly well suited for directly fabricating electronic components on soft, irregular surfaces such as textiles.

3. Technology Integration: Binder-Free MXene Ink

At the heart of this technology is the use of “pure, water-based MXene ink,” which is deposited layer by layer onto textile surfaces via aerosol jet printing (AJP), forming a continuous, uniform conductive coating. These MXene coatings exhibit exceptionally high electrical conductivity and require neither binders nor additional metallic electrodes, thereby significantly simplifying the device architecture and reducing the weight of the finished product.

4. Energy Storage Mechanism

The resulting supercapacitor leverages MXene’s electric double-layer capacitance and surface redox reactions (pseudocapacitance) to achieve rapid charge–discharge cycling and long‑term energy storage. In essence, it functions as a portable power source by using conductive “storage sites” formed on the textile surface to store and release electrical energy.

Innovation Highlights

1. High-performance electrode

Extremely high specific capacitance: It can deliver up to 4.4 farads per square centimeter per unit area, a substantial improvement over conventional flexible electrodes.

Wide voltage window: A working range of −0.65 V to 0.2 V, enabling enhanced energy density.

Outstanding cycle life: After 10,000 charge–discharge cycles, the capacity remains virtually unchanged, demonstrating exceptional stability.

Wash‑resistant and durable: After up to 100 wash cycles—simulating real‑world wear and washing conditions—the electrodes continue to deliver excellent performance.

2. Textiles Directly Used as Electrodes

Using aerosol jet printing (AJP)—a maskless, high-precision deposition technique—it is possible to directly “print” electrode patterns onto a variety of textile substrates, including cotton and polyester.

It forms a thin, uniform layer with strong adhesion, without compromising the fabric’s hand or appearance.

3. Flexible and customizable

Design diversified electrode structures—such as interdigitated, parallel, or series configurations—to meet the requirements of various electronic devices.

Unlimited in shape and size, with designs that can be freely customized to suit a wide range of devices and apparel.

Application Prospects

1. Energy Supply in Smart Clothing

Directly sewn into sportswear, medical monitoring garments, military gear, and more, it creates an on‑body energy storage system.

It doesn’t affect your everyday wearing experience and is easy to wash and maintain.

2. Wearable medical devices

It is used in smart wristbands and health-monitoring garments, providing a continuous and stable power supply.

The supercapacitor’s rapid charge–discharge characteristics make it well suited for the dynamic acquisition and storage of physiological data.

3. Smart Sports Equipment

Such as smart running shoes and yoga apparel, they both ensure an adequate energy supply during exercise and provide exceptional comfort.

It enables wireless communication and power supply for sensors, enhancing the user’s experience.

4. Flexible electronic skin and biomimetic materials

Integrated into robots, bionic gloves, and other devices, it will play a leading role in shaping the future of flexible electronics.

Image and Text Guide

Figure 1. Characterization of additive-free aqueous Ti3C2Tx ink. a) Schematic illustration of the aerosolization and pneumatic focusing processes in aerosol jet printing (AJP). b) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx flakes. c) Histogram of the size distribution of Ti3C2Tx flakes in the ink, determined using ImageJ software across multiple images (Figures S1 and S5, Supporting Information), followed by statistical analysis. d) TEM image after ultrasonic atomization in aerosol jet printing (AJP), revealing wrinkled Ti3C2Tx flakes. e) Optical microscopy image of an interdigitated device (IDD) printed on cotton, demonstrating the high-resolution patterning capability of aerosol jet printing (AJP). f) Relationship between resistance and the number of AJP-deposited layers for a 1 × 6 mm² sample on cotton. The inset shows a strong linear correlation between mass loading and the number of printed layers (R² = 0.98896), confirming the consistency and precision of material deposition via aerosol jet printing (AJP). SEM images of Ti3C2Tx MXene deposited by AJP on g) cotton (C), h) polyester‑cotton blend (PC), and i) polyester (PR). The blue dashed line delineates the boundary between the pristine fabric (left) and the printed Ti3C2Tx film (right). j) Close-up of the cotton surface, highlighting individual Ti3C2Tx ink flakes embedded within the fabric. k) XRD spectra comparing Ti3C2Tx MXene films with MXene‑printed fabrics (MX@C, MX@PC, MX@PR). The spectra reveal characteristic MXene‑related peaks alongside distinct fabric‑specific peaks, underscoring successful integration and tailored material–fabric interactions; further details are provided in Figures S10–S14 (Supporting Information).

Figure 2. Electrochemical characteristics of MX@Fabric electrodes fabricated via aerosol jet printing (AJP). a) Cyclic voltammograms of the MX@C‑10L electrode at scan rates of 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20, 30, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, and 1000 mV s⁻¹, demonstrating the pseudocapacitive behavior of Ti₃C₂Tₓ in sulfuric acid. b) Galvanostatic charge–discharge curves of the MX@C‑10L electrode at current densities of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 mA cm⁻², exhibiting a symmetric and non‑linear profile. c) Comparative cyclic voltammograms of the MX@C‑10L, MX@PC‑10L, and MX@PR‑10L electrodes at a scan rate of 5 mV s⁻¹. d) Comparison of the rate capabilities of the MX@C‑10L, MX@PC‑10L, and MX@PR‑10L electrodes, expressed as areal capacitance. e) Rate performance of MX@C electrodes with 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 printed layers. f) Comparative galvanostatic charge–discharge curves of MX@C electrodes with 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 printed layers at a current density of 10 mA cm⁻². g) Analysis of charge storage kinetics via b‑value calculations for the MX@C‑10L, MX@PC‑10L, and MX@PR‑10L electrodes. A dashed line with a slope of b = 1 indicates an ideal capacitive/pseudocapacitive charging mechanism and rapid ion diffusion. h) Cycling stability studies of the MX@C‑10L, MX@PC‑10L, and MX@PR‑10L electrodes, conducted through 10,000 cycles of long‑cycle voltammetry at 100 mV s⁻¹.

Figure 3. Study of the wash durability of the MX@C‑10L‑#W electrode (tested according to ISO 105‑C06, A1M standard), conducted via optical microscopy and electrochemical analysis. a–c) Optical microscopy (left) and scanning electron microscopy (right) images show, respectively, the pristine state (0W), after five washes (5W), and after sixty washes (60W), highlighting fabric integrity, MXene distribution, and microstructural changes as the number of washes increases. d) Cyclic voltammograms at a scan rate of 5 mV s⁻¹ for different washing cycles, exhibiting distinct cathodic and anodic peaks. e) Rate‑performance plot summarizing capacitance variations across multiple washing cycles. f) Analysis of charge‑storage kinetics at different washing stages using the b‑value; the dashed line with a slope of b = 1 indicates an ideal capacitive/pseudocapacitive charging mechanism and rapid ion diffusion.

Figure 4. Aerosol jet‑printed (AJP) Ti3C2Tx MX@C MSCs with an IDD electrode architecture. a) Cyclic voltammograms of the MX@C‑30L MSC at scan rates of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 mV s⁻¹. b) Galvanostatic charge–discharge curves of the MX@C‑30L MSC at current densities of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mA cm⁻². c) Comparison of areal capacitance among printed MSCs reported in [4, 23, 51, 55–65]; samples marked with an asterisk were fabricated in this study; see Table S3 in the Supporting Information for details. d) Ragone plot comparing the reported printed MSCs in [23, 51, 56, 57, 60, 64]; samples marked with an asterisk were prepared in this work; see Table S4 in the Supporting Information for further details. e) Electrochemical performance of the MX@C MSC under bending at angles of 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180° at a scan rate of 10 mV s⁻¹. f) Retention of areal capacitance as a function of bending angle. g) Comparison of a single‑cell, a two‑cell (2S), and a two‑parallel‑cell (2P) MSC device, along with a four‑cell series‑connected device powering an LED lamp; see the figure caption.

With the rapid advancement of technology, it has become possible to seamlessly integrate “electronicization” into our everyday attire. This groundbreaking innovation—using aerosol jet printing (AJP) to directly fabricate supercapacitors on textiles—offers a brand‑new solution for next‑generation smart clothing. With its high performance, washability, lightweight design, and customizable features, it is poised to usher the wearable electronics industry into an entirely new era.

We believe that in the near future, each of us will be able to wear smart clothing that generates its own energy, eliminating concerns about insufficient battery life, inconvenient charging, and even damage from washing. Technology is making life more convenient and smarter, and this innovation is the key to unlocking the “smart wardrobe” of tomorrow.